How Does the Public Knowledge of DNA Help Make Good Public Policy Decisions Research Paper

launched this year in Country A have survived than survived in previous years. 4. The gray squirrel, introduced into local woodlands ten years ago, threatens the indigenous population of an endangered owl species, because the squirrels’ habitual stripping of tree bark destroys the trees in which the owls nest. Some local officials have advocated setting out poison for the gray squirrels.

The officials argue that this measure, while eliminating the squirrels, would pose no threat to the owl population, since the poison would be placed in containers accessible only to squirrels and other rodents. Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the officials’ argument? (A) One of the species whose members are likely to eat the poison is the red squirrel, a species on which owls do not prey. (B) The owls whose nesting sites are currently being destroyed by the gray squirrels feed primarily on rodents. C) No indigenous population of any other bind species apart from the endangered owls is threatened by the gray squirrels. (D) The owls that tare threatened build their nests in the tops of trees, but the gray squirrels strip away back from the trunks. (E) The officials’ plan entails adding the poison to food sources that are usually eaten by rodents but not by other animals. Questions 5-6 Sales manager: Last year the total number of meals sold in our company restaurants was much higher than it was the year before. Obviously consumers find our meals desirable.

Accountant: If you look at individual restaurants, however, you find that the number of meals sold actually decreased substantially at every one of our restaurants that was in operation both last year and the year before. The desirability of our meals to consumers has clearly decreased, given that this group of restaurants-the only ones for which we have sales figures that permit a comparison between last year and the year before-demonstrates a trend toward fewer sales. 5. If the sales figures cited by the accountant and the sales manager are both accurate, which one of the following must be true? A) The company opened at least one new restaurant in the last two years. (B) The company’s meals are less competitive than they once were. (C) The quality of the company’s meals has not improved over the last two years. (D) The prices of the company’s meals have changed over the past two years. (E) The market share captured by the company’s restaurants fell last year. 6. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously calls into question the accountant’s argument? (A) The company’s restaurants last year dropped from their menus most of the new dishes that had been introduced the year before. B) Prior to last year there was an overall downward trend in the company’s sales. (C) Those of the company’s restaurants that did increase their sales last year did not offer large discounts on prices to attract customers. (D) Sales of the company’s most expensive meal contributed little to the overall two-year sales increase. (E) Most of the company’s restaurants that were in operation throughout both last year and

the year before are located in areas where residents experienced a severe overall decline in income last year. 7.

Problems caused by the leaching of pollutants from dumps and landfills are worst in countries with an annual per capita economic output of $4,000 to $5,000, and less severe for considerably poorer and considerably richer countries. This is so because pollution problems increase during the early stages of a country’s industrial development but then diminish as increasing industrial development generates adequate resources to tackle such problems. Therefore, problems caused by such leaching in Country X, where the annual per capita economic output is now $5,000, should begin to diminish in the next few years.

Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) Within the next few years, Country X will impose a system of fines for illegal waste disposal by its industrial companies. (B) Countries surrounding Country X will reduce the amount of pollution that their factories release into the air and water. (C) Industrial development in Country X will increase in the next few years. (D) Country X will begin the process of industrialization in the next few years. (E) No other country with a similar amount of industrial development has pollution problems that are as severe as those in Country X.. The stable functioning of a society depends upon the relatively long-term stability of the goals of its citizens. This is clear from the fact that unless the majority of individuals have a predictable and enduring set of aspirations, it will be impossible for a legislature to craft laws that will augment the satisfaction of the citizenry, and it should be obvious that a society is stable only if its laws tend to increase the happiness of its citizens. The claim that a society is stable only if its laws tend to increase the happiness of its citizens plays which one of the following roles in the argument? A) It is the conclusion of the argument. (B) It helps to support the conclusion of the argument. (C) It is a claim that must be refuted if the conclusion is to be established. (D) It is a consequence of the argument. (E) It is used to illustrate the general principle that the argument presupposes. 9. Astronauts who experience weightlessness frequently get motion sickness. The astronauts see their own motion relative to passing objects, but while the astronauts are weightless their inner ears indicate that their bodies are not moving.

The astronauts’ experience is best explained by the hypothesis that conflicting information received by the brain about the body’s motion causes motion sickness. Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest additional support for the hypothesis above? (A) During rough voyages ship passengers in cabins providing a view of the water are less likely to get motion sickness than are passengers in cabins providing no view. (B) Many people who are experienced airplane passengers occasionally get motion sickness. C) Some automobile passengers whose inner ears indicate that they are moving and who have a clear view of the objects they are passing get motion sickness. (D) People

who have aisle seats in trains or airplanes are as likely to get motion sickness as are people who have window seats. (E) Some astronauts do not get motion sickness even after being in orbit for several days. 10. In order to pressure the government of Country S to become less repressive, some legislators in Country R want to ban all exports from R to S.

Companies in R that manufacture telecommunication equipment such as telephones and fax machines have argued that exports of their products should be exempted from the ban, on the ground that it is impossible for a country to remain repressive when telecommunication equipment is widely available to the population of that country. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument given by the manufacturers depends? (A) The government of S has recently increased the amount of telecommunication equipment it allows to be imported into the country. B) The telecommunication equipment that would be imported into S if the exemption were to be granted would not be available solely to top development officials in S. (C) A majority of the members of R’s legislature do not favor exempting telecommunication equipment from the ban on exports to Country S. (D) Of all exports that could be sent to Country S, telecommunication equipment would be the most effective in helping citizens of S oppose that country’s repressive government. (E) Without pressure from Country R, the government of S would be able to continue repressing its citizens indefinitely. 1. The average cable television company offers its customers 50 channels, but new fiber-optic lines will enable telephone companies to provide 100 to 150 television channels to their customers for the same price as cable companies charge for 50. Therefore, cable companies will be displaced by the new companies within a few years. Which of the following, if true, most helps to strengthen the argument? (A) The initial cost per household of installing new fiber-optic television service will exceed the current cost of installing cable television service. B) The most popular movies and programs on channels carried by cable companies will also be offered on channels carried by the fiber-optic lines owned by the telephone companies. (C) Cable television companies will respond to competition from the telephone companies by increasing the number of channels they offer. (D) Some telephone companies own cable companies in areas other than those in which they provide telephone services. (E) The new fiber-optic services offered by telephone companies will be subject to more stringent governmental programming regulations than those to which cable companies are now subject. 2. The only physical factor preventing a human journey to Mars has been weight. Carrying enough fuel to propel a conventional spacecraft to Mars and back would make even the lightest craft too heavy to be launched from Earth. A device has recently been invented, however, that allows an otherwise conventional spacecraft to refill the craft’s fuel tanks with fuel manufactured from the Martian atmosphere for the return trip. Therefore, it is possible for people to go to Mars in a spacecraft that carries this device and then return.

Which

one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) The amount of fuel needed for a spacecraft to return from Mars is the same as the amount of fuel needed to travel from Earth to Mars. (B) The fuel manufactured from the Martian atmosphere would not differ in composition from the fuel used to travel to Mars. (C) The device for manufacturing fuel from the Martian atmosphere would not take up any of the spaceship crew’s living space. (D) A conventional spacecraft equipped with the device would not be appreciably more expensive to construct than current spacecraft typically are. E) The device for manufacturing fuel for the return to Earth weighs less than the tanks of fuel that a conventional spacecraft would otherwise need to carry from Earth for the return trip. 13. In 1712 the government of Country Y appointed a censor to prohibit the publication of any book critical of Country Y’s government; all new books legally published in the country after 1712 were approved by a censor. Under the first censor, one half of the book manuscripts submitted to the censor were not approved for publication.

Under the next censor, only one quarter of the book manuscripts submitted were not approved, but the number of book manuscripts that were approved was the same under both censors. If the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following can be properly concluded from them? (A) More books critical of Country Y’s governments were published before the appointment of the first censor than after it. (B) The first censor and the second censor prohibited the publication of the same number of book manuscripts. C) More book manuscripts were submitted for approval to the first censor than to the second. (D) The second censor allowed some book manuscripts to the published that the first censor would have considered critical of Country Y’s government. (E) The number of writers who wrote unpublished manuscripts was greater under the first censor than under the second. 14. If the government increases its funding for civilian scientific research, private patrons and industries will believe that such research has become primarily the government’s responsibility.

When they believe that research is no longer primarily their responsibility, private patrons and industries will decrease their contributions toward research. Therefore, in order to keep from depressing the overall level of funding for civilian scientific research, the government should not increase its own funding. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? (A) Governments should bear the majority of the financial burden of funding for civilian scientific research. (B) Any increase in government funding would displace more private funding for civilian scientific research than it would provide. C) Private donations toward research are no longer welcomed by researchers whose work receives government funding. (D) Civilian scientific research cannot be conducted efficiently with more than one source of funding. (E) funding for civilian scientific research is currently at the highest possible level. 15. Dental researcher: Filling a cavity in a tooth is not a harmless procedure: it inevitably damages some

of the healthy parts of the tooth. Cavities are harmful only if the decay reaches the nerves inside the tooth, and many cavities, if left untreated, never progress to that point.

Therefore, dentists should not fill a cavity unless the nerves inside the tooth are in imminent danger from that cavity. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most strongly supports the researcher’s reasoning? (A) Dentists should perform any procedure that is likely to be beneficial in the long term, but only if the procedure does not cause immediate damage. (B) Dentists should help their patients to prevent cavities rather than waiting until cavities are present to begin treatment. (C) A condition that is only potentially harmful should not be treated using a method that is definitely harmful. D) A condition that is typically progressive should not be treated using methods that provide only temporary relief. (E) A condition that is potentially harmful should not be left untreated unless it can be kept under constant surveillance. 16. The axis of Earth’s daily rotation is tilted with respect to the plane of its orbit at an angle of roughly 23 degrees. That angle can be kept fairly stable only by the gravitational influence of Earth’s large, nearby Moon. Without such a stable and moderate axis tilt, a planet’s climate is too extreme and unstable to support life.

Mars, for example, has only very small moons, tilts at wildly fluctuating angles, and cannot support life. If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? (A) If Mars had a sufficiently large nearby moon, Mars would be able to support life. (B) If Earth’s Moon were to leave Earth’s orbit, Earth’s climate would be unable to support life. (C) Any planet with a stable, moderate axis tilt can support life. (D) Gravitational influences other than moons have little or no effect on the magnitude of the tilt angle of either Earth’s or Mars’s axis. E) No planet that has more than one moon can support life. 17. Psychologist: Some astrologers claim that our horoscopes completely determine our personalities, but this claim is false, I concede that identical twins-who are, of course, born at practically the same time-often do have similar personalities. However, birth records were examined to find two individuals who were born 40 years ago on the same day and at exactly the same time-one in a hospital in Toronto and one in a hospital in New York. Personalities of these two individuals are in fact ifferent. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the psychologist’s argument depends? (A) Astrologers have not subjected their claims to rigorous experimentation. (B) The personality differences between the two individuals cannot be explained by the cultural difference between Toronto and New York. (C) The geographical difference between Toronto and New York did not result in the two individuals having different horoscopes. (D) Complete birth records for the past 40 years were kept at both hospitals. E) Identical twins have identical genetic structures and usually have similar home environments. 18.

Modern navigation systems, which are found in most of today’s commercial aircraft, are made with low-power circuitry, which is more susceptible to interference than the vacuum-tube circuitry found in older planes. During landing, navigation systems receive radio signals from the airport to guide the plane to the runway. Recently, one plane with low-power circuitry veered off course during landing, its dials dimming, when a passenger turned on a laptop computer.

Clearly, modern aircraft navigation systems are being put at risk by the electronic devices that passengers carry on board, such as cassette players and laptop computers. Which one of the following, if true, LEAST strengthens the argument above? (A) After the laptop computer was turned off, the plane regained course and its navigation instruments and dials returned to normal. (B) When in use all electronic devices emit electromagnetic radiation, which is known to interfere with circuitry. (C) No problems with navigational equipment or instrument dials have been reported on flights with no passenger-owned electronic devices on board. D) Significant electromagnetic radiation from portable electronic devices can travel up to eight meters, and some passenger seats on modern aircraft are located within four meters of the navigation systems. (E) Planes were first equipped with low-power circuitry at about the same time portable electronic devices became popular. Test 2 19. Jane: Television programs and movies that depict violence among teenagers are extremely popular. Given how influential these media are, we have good reason to believe that these depictions cause young people to engage in violent behavior.

Hence, depictions of violence among teenagers should be prohibited from movies and television programs, if only in those programs and movies promoted to young audiences. Maurice: But you are recommending nothing short of censorship! Besides which, your claim that television and movie depictions of violence cause violence is mistaken: violence among young people predates movies and television by centuries. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens Jane’s argument? (A) The most violent characters depicted in movies and on television programs are adult characters who are portrayed by adult actors. B) The movies that have been shown to have the most influence on young people’s behavior are those that are promoted to young audiences. (C) The people who make the most profits in the movie and television industry are those who can successfully promote their work to both young and old audiences. (D) Many adolescents who engage in violent behavior had already displayed such behavior before they were exposed violence in movies. (E) Among the producers who make both movies and television programs, many voluntarily restrict the subject matter of films directed toward young audiences. 0. A rise in the percentage of all 18-year-olds who were recruited by the armed services of a small republic between 1980 and 1986 correlates with a rise in the percentage of young people who dropped out of high school in that republic. Since 18-year-olds in the republic are generally either high school graduates or high school dropouts, the correlation leads to the conclusion that the republic’s recruitment rates for 18-year-olds depend substantially on recruitment rates for high school dropouts. Which

one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the argument? A) A large number of 18-year-old high school graduates were recruited for the republic’s armed services in 1986 than in 1980. (B) Many of the high-technology systems used by the republic’s armed services can be operated only by individuals who have completed a high school education. (C) Between 1980 and 1986 the percentage of high school graduates among 18-year-olds recruited in the republic rose sharply. (D) Personnel of the republic’s armed services are strongly encouraged to finish their high school education. (E) The proportion of recruits who had completed at least two years of college education was greater in 1986 than in 1980. 21.

Historian: We can learn about the medical history of individuals through chemical analysis of their hair. It is likely, for example, that Isaac Newton’s psychological problems were due to mercury poisoning; traces of mercury were found in his hair. Analysis is now being done on a lock of Beethoven’s hair. Although no convincing argument has shown that Beethoven ever had a venereal disease, some people hypothesize that venereal disease caused his deafness. Since mercury was commonly ingested in Beethoven’s time to treat venereal disease, if researchers find a trace of mercury in his hair, we can conclude that this hypothesis is correct.

Which one of the following is an assumption on which the historian’s argument depends? (A) None of the mercury introduced into the body can be eliminated. (B) Some people in Beethoven’s time did not ingest mercury. (C) Mercury is an effective treatment for venereal disease. (D) Mercury poisoning can cause deafness in people with venereal disease. (E) Beethoven suffered from psychological problems of the same severity as Newton’s. 22. In 1992, a major newspaper circulated throughout North American paid its reporters an average salary paid by its principle competitors to their reporters.

An executive of the newspaper argued that this practice was justified, since any shortfall that might exist in the reporters’ salaries is fully compensated by the valuable training they receive through their assignments. Which one of the following, if true about the newspaper in 1992, most seriously undermines the justification offered by the executive? (A) Senior reporters at the newspaper earned as much as reporters of similar stature who worked for the newspaper’s principle competitors. (B) Most of the newspaper’s reporters had worked there for more than ten years. C) The circulation of the newspaper had recently reached a plateau, after it had increased steadily throughout the 1980s. (D) The union that represented reporters at the newspaper was different from the union that represented reporters at the newspaper’s competitors. (E) The newspaper was widely read throughout continental Europe and Great Britain as well as North America. 23. On a certain day, nine scheduled flights on Swift Airlines were canceled. Ordinarily, a cancellation is due to mechanical problems with the airplane scheduled for a certain flight.

However, since it is unlikely that Swift would have the mechanical problems with more than one or two scheduled flights on a single day, some of the nine cancellations were probably due to something else.

(A) More than one or two airplanes were scheduled for the nine canceled flights. (B) Swift Airlines has fewer mechanical problems than do other airlines of the same size. (C) Each of the canceled flights would have been longer than the average flight on Swift Airlines. (D) Swift Airlines had never before canceled more than one or two scheduled flights on a single day. E) All of the airplanes scheduled for the canceled flights are based at the same airport. 24. The interstitial nucleus, a subregion of the brain’s hypothalamus, is typically smaller for male cats than for female cats. A neurobiologist performed autopsies on male cats who died from disease X, a disease affecting no more than. 05 percent of male cats, and found that these male cats had interstitial nuclei that were as large as those generally found in female cats. Thus, the size of the interstitial nucleus determines whether or not male cats can contract disease X.

Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) No female cats have been known to contract disease X, which is a subtype of disease Y. (B) Many male cats who contract disease X also contract disease Z, the cause of which is unknown. (C) the interstitial nuclei of female cats who contact disease X are larger than those of female cats who do not contract disease X. (D) Of 1,000 autopsies on male cats who did not contract disease X, 5 revealed interstitial nuclei larger than those of the average male cat. E) The hypothalamus is known not to be causally linked to disease Y, and disease X is a subtype of disease Y. 25. There should be a greater use of gasohol. Gasohol is a mixture of alcohol and gasoline, and has a higher octane rating and fewer carbon monoxide emissions than straight gasoline. Burning gasohol adds no more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere than plants remove by photosynthesis. Each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument above EXCEPT: (A) Cars run less well on gasoline than they do on gasohol. (B) Since less gasoline is needed with the use of gasohol, an energy shortage is less likely. C) Cars burn on the average slightly more gasohol per kilometer than they do gasoline. (D) Gasohol is cheaper to produce and hence costs less at the pump than gasoline. (E) Burning gasoline adds more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere than plants can remove. 26. Barnes: The two newest employees at this company have salaries that are too high for the simple tasks normally assigned to new employees and duties that are too complex for inexperienced workers. Hence, the salaries and the complexity of the duties of these two newest employees should be reduced.

Which one of the following is an assumption on which Barnes’s argument depends? (A) The duties of the two newest employees are not less complex than any others in the company. (B) It is because of the complex duties assigned that the two newest employees are being paid more than is usually paid to newly hired employees. (C) The two newest employees are not experienced

at their occupations. (D) Barnes was not hired at a higher-than-average starting salary. (E) The salaries of the two newest are no higher than the salaries that other companies pay for workers with a similar level of experience. 27.

These days, drug companies and health professionals alike are focusing their attention on cholesterol in the blood. The more cholesterol we have in our blood, the higher the risk that we shall die of a heart attack. The issue is pertinent since heart disease kills more North Americans every year than any other single cause. At least three factors-smoking, drinking, and exercise—can each influence levels of the cholesterol in the blood. Which one of the following can be properly concluded from the passage? (A) If a person has low blood cholesterol, then that person’s risk of fatal heart disease is low. B) Smoking in moderation can entail as great a risk of fatal heart disease as does heavy smoking. (C) A high-cholesterol diet is the principal cause of death in North America. (D) The only way that smoking increases one’s risk of fatal heart disease is by influencing the levels of cholesterol in the blood. (E) The risk of fatal heart disease can be altered by certain changes in lifestyle. 28. Ordinary mountain sickness, a common condition among mountain climbers, and one from which most people can recover, is caused by the characteristic shortage of oxygen in the atmosphere at high altitudes.

Cerebral edema, a rarer disruption of blood circulation in the brain that quickly becomes life-threatening if not correctly treated from its onset, can also be caused by a shortage of oxygen. Since the symptoms of cerebral edema resemble those of ordinary mountain sickness, cerebral edema is especially dangerous at high altitudes. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) The treatment for ordinary mountain sickness differs from the treatment for cerebral edema. (B) Cerebral edema can cause those who suffer from it to slip into a coma within a few hours. C) Unlike cerebral edema, ordinary mountain sickness involves no disruption of blood circulation in the brain. (D) Shortage of oxygen at extremely high altitude is likely to affect thinking processes and cause errors of judgment. (E) Most people who suffer from ordinary mountain sickness recover without any special treatment. 29. The price of a full-fare coach ticket from Toronto to Dallas on Breezeway Airlines is the same today as it was a year ago, if inflation is taken into account by calculating prices in constant dollars.

However, today 90 percent of the Toronto-to-Dallas coach tickets that Breezeway sells are discount tickets and only 10 percent are full-fare tickets, whereas a year ago half were discount tickets and half were full-fare tickets. Therefore, on average, people pay less today in constant dollars for a Breezeway Toronto-to-Dallas coach ticket than they did a year ago. Which one of the following, if assumed, would allow the conclusion above to be properly drawn? (A) A Toronto-to-Dallas full-fare coach ticket on Breezeway Airlines provides ticket-holders with a lower level of service today than such a ticket provided

a year ago. B) A Toronto-to-Dallas discount coach ticket on Breezeway Airlines costs about the same in constant dollars as they did a year ago. (C) All full-fare coach tickets on Breezeway Airlines cost the same in constant dollars as they did a year ago. (D) The average number of coach passengers per flight that Breezeway Airlines carries from Toronto to Dallas today is higher than the average number per flight a year ago. (E) The criteria that Breezeway Airlines uses for permitting passengers to buy discount coach tickets on the Toronto-to-Dallas route are different today than they were a year ago. 30.

Combustion of gasoline in automobile engines produces benzene, a known carcinogen. Environmentalists propose replacing gasoline with methanol, which does not produce significant quantities of benzene when burned. However, combustion of methanol produces formaldehyde, also a know carcinogen. Therefore the environmentalists’ proposal has little merit. Which one of the following, if true, most supports the environmentalist’ proposal? (A) The engines of some automobiles now on the road burn diesel fuel rather than gasoline. (B) Several large research efforts are under way to formulate cleaner-burning types of gasoline. C) In some regions, the local economy is largely dependent on industries devoted to the production and distribution of automobile fuel. (D) formaldehyde is a less potent carcinogen than benzene. (E) Since methanol is water soluble, methanol spills are more damaging to the environment than gasoline spills. Questions 31-32 Political opinion and analysis outside the mainstream rarely are found on television talk shows, and it might be thought that this state of affairs is a product of the political agenda of the television stations themselves.

In fact, television stations are driven by the same economic forces as sellers of more tangible goods. Because they must attempt to capture the largest possible share of the television audience for their shows, they air only those shows that will appeal to large numbers of people. As a result, political opinions and analyses aired on television talk shows are typically bland and innocuous. 31. An assumption made in the explanation offered by the author of the passage is that (A) most television viewers cannot agree on which elements of a particular opinion or analysis are most disturbing. B) there are television viewers who might refuse to watch television talk shows that they knew would be controversial and disturbing. (C) each television viewer holds some opinion that is outside the political mainstream, but those opinions are not the same for everyone. (D) there are television shows on which economic forces have an even greater impact than they do on television talk shows. (E) the television talk shows of different stations resemble one another in most respects. 32. The explanation offered by the author of the passage makes the assumption that A) television station executives usually lack a political agenda of their own (B) bland and innocuous political opinions and analyses are generally in the mainstream (C) political analysts outside the mainstream are relatively indifferent to the effect their analyses have on television viewers (D) most television viewers are prepared to argue against allowing the expression of political

opinions and analyses with which they disagree (E) the political opinions of television station executives are not often reflected in the television shows their stations produce

Questions 33-34 Conservationist: The population of a certain wildflower is so small that the species is headed for extinction. However, this wildflower can cross-pollinate with a closely related domesticated daisy, producing viable seeds. Such cross-pollination could result in a significant population of wildflower-daisy hybrids. The daisy should therefore be introduced into the wildflower’s range, since although the hybrid would differ markedly from the wildflower, hybridization is the only means of preventing total loss of the wildflower in its range. 33.

Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the conservationist’s reasoning? (A) It is better to take measures to preserve a valued type of organism, even if those measures are drastic, than to accept a less valuable substitute for the organism. (B) It is better to preserve a type of organism that is in danger of extinction, even if surviving organisms of that type are not vigorous, than to allow something more vigorous to replace it. (C) It is better to change a type of organism that would otherwise be lost, even if the changes are radical, than to lose it entirely. D) It is better to destroy one of two competing types of organisms, even if both are irreplaceable, than to allow both of them to be lost. (E) It is better to protect an endangered type of organism, even if doing so has some negative effects on another type of organism, than to do nothing at all. 34. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the conservationist’s reasoning depends? (A) The wildflower currently reproduces only by forming seeds. (B) The domesticated daisy was bred from wild plants that once grew in the wildflower’s range. (C) Increasing the population of the wildflower will also expand its range. D) Wildflower-daisy hybrids will be able to reproduce. (E) The domesticated daisy will cross-pollinate with any daisy like plant. 35. Because of increases in the price of oil and because of government policies promoting energy conservation, the use of oil to heat homes fell by 40 percent from 1970 to the present, and many homeowners switched to natural gas for heating. Because switching to natural gas involved investing in equipment, a significant switch back to oil in the near future is unlikely. The prediction that ends the passage would be most seriously called into question if it were true that in the last few years. A) the price of natural gas to heat homes has remained constant, while the cost of equipment to heat homes with natural gas has fallen sharply. (B) the price of home heating oil has remained constant, while the cost of equipment to heat home with natural gas has risen sharply. (C) the cost of equipment to heat homes with natural gas has fallen sharply, while the price of home heating oil has fallen to 1970 levels. (D) the cost of equipment to heat homes with oil has fallen sharply, while the price of heating with oil has fallen below the price of heating with natural gas E) the use of oil to heat homes has continued to decline, while the price of heating oil has fallen to 1970 levels 36. Sometimes when their trainer gives the hand signal for “Do something creative together” two dolphins circle a pool in tandem and then leap through the air simultaneously. On the other occasions, the same signal elicits synchronized backward swims or tail-waving. These behaviors are not simply learned responses to a given stimulus. Rather, dolphins are capable of higher cognitive functions that may include the use of language and forethought. Which one

of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A) Mammals have some resemblance to one another with respect to bodily function and brain structure. (B) The dolphins often exhibit complex new responses to the hand signal. (C) The dolphins are given food incentives as part of their training. (D) Dolphins do not interact with humans the way they interact with one another. (E) Some of the behaviors mentioned are exhibited by dolphins in their natural habitat Test 3 37. Editorialist: Drivers with a large number of demerit points who additionally have been convicted of a serious driving-relative offense should either be sentenced to jail or be forced to receive driver eeducation, since to do otherwise would be to allow a crime to go unpunished. Only if such drivers are likely to be made more responsible drivers should driver re-education be recommended for them. Unfortunately, it is always almost impossible to make drivers with a large number of demerit points more responsible drivers. If the editorialist’s statements are true, they provide the most support for which one of the following? (A) Drivers with a large number of demerit points who have been convicted of a serious driving-related offense should be sent to jail. B) Driver re-education offers the best chance of making drivers with a large number of demerit points responsible drivers. (C) Driver re-education is not a harsh enough punishment for anyone convicted of a serious driving-related offense who has also (D) Driver re-education should not be recommended for those who have committed no serious (E) Drivers with a larger number of demerit points but no conviction for a serious driving-related offense should receive driver re-education rather than jail 38. Amphibian populations are declining in numbers worldwide.

Not coincidentally, the earth’s ozone layer has been continuously depleted throughout the last 50 years. Atmospheric ozone blocks UV-B, a type of ultraviolet radiation that is continuously produced by the sun, and which can damage genes. Because amphibians lack hair, hide, or feathers to shield them, they are particularly vulnerable to UV-B radiation. In addition, their gelatinous eggs lack the protection of leathery or hard shells. Thus, the primary cause of the declining amphibian population is the depletion of the ozone layer. Each of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument EXCEPT: A) Of the various types of radiation blocked by atmospheric ozone, UV-B is the only type that can damage genes. (B) Amphibian populations are declining far more rapidly than are the populations of nonamphibian species whose tissues and eggs have more natural protection from UV-B. (C) Atmospheric ozone has been significantly depleted above all the areas of the world in which amphibian populations are declining. (D) The natural habitat of amphibians has not become smaller over the past century. (E) Amphibian populations have declined continuously for the last 50 years. 39.

Quasars-celestial objects so far away that their light takes at least 500 million years to reach Earth-have been seen since 1963. For anything that far away to appear from Earth the way quasars do, it would have to burn steadily at a rate that produces more light than 90 billion suns would

produce. But nothing that burns at a rate that produces that much light could exist for more than about 100 million years. If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? (A) Instruments in use before 1963 were not sensitive enough to permit quasars to be seen. B) Light from quasars first began reaching Earth in 1963. (C) Anything that from Earth appears as bright as a quasar does must produce more light than would be produced by 90 billion suns. (D) Nothing that is as far from Earth as quasars are can continue to exist for more than about 100 million years. (E) No quasar that has ever been seen from Earth exists any longer. 40. More and more computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering are being produced, and it is thus increasingly unnecessary for practicing engineers to have thorough understanding of fundamental mathematical principles.

Consequently, in training engineers who will work in industry, less emphasis should be placed on mathematical principles, so that space in the engineering curriculum will be available for other important subjects. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument given for the recommendation above? (A) The effective use of computer program that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering requires an understanding of mathematical principles. (B) Many of the computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering are already in routine use. C) Development of composites and other such new materials has meant that the curriculum for engineers who will work in industry must allow time for teaching the properties of these materials. (D) Most of the computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering can be run on the types of computers available to most engineering firms. (E) The engineering curriculum already requires that engineering students be familiar with and able to use a variety of computer programs. 41. Raymond Burr played the role of lawyer Perry Mason on television.

Burr’s death in 1993 prompted a prominent lawyer to say “Although not a lawyer, Mr. Burr strove for such authenticity that we feel as if we lost one of our own. ” This comment from a prestigious attorney provides appalling evidence that, in the face of television, even some legal professionals are losing their ability to distinguish fiction from reality. The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument (A) takes the views of one lawyer to represent the views of all lawyers (B) criticizes the lawyer rather than the lawyer’s statement C) presumes that the lawyer is qualified to evaluate the performance of an actor (D) focuses on a famous actor’s portrayal of a lawyer rather than on the usual way in which lawyers are portrayed on television (E) ignores the part of the lawyer’s remark that indicates an awareness of the difference between reality and fiction 42. For next year, the Chef’s Union has requested a 10 percent salary increase for each of its members, whereas the Hotel Managers’ Union has requested only an 8 percent salary increase for each of its members.

These

facts demonstrate that the average dollar amount of the raises that the Chefs’ Union has requested for next year is greater than that of the raises requested by the Hotel Managers’ Union. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) The Chefs’ Union has many more members than does the Hotel Managers’ Union. (B) The Chefs’ Union is a more powerful union than is the Hotel Managers’ Union and is therefore more likely to obtain the salary increases it requests (C) The current salaries of the members of the Chefs’ Union are, on average, higher than the current salaries of the members of the Hotel Managers’ Union D) The average dollar amount of the raises that the members of the Chefs’ Union received last ear was equal to the average dollar amount of the raises that the members of the Hotel Managers’ Union received (E) The members of the Chefs’ Union received salary increases of 10 percent in each of the last two years, while the members of the Hotel Managers’ Union received salary increases of only 8 percent in each of the last two years 43. Zoos have served both as educational resources and as entertainment.

Unfortunately, removing animals from their natural habitats to stock the earliest zoos reduced certain species’ populations, endangering their survival. Today most new zoo animals are obtained from captive breeding programs, and many zoos now maintain breeding stocks for continued propagation of various species. This makes possible efforts to reestablish endangered species in the wild. Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above? (A) Zoos have played an essential role in educating the public about endangered species. B) Some specimens of endangered species are born and bred in zoos. (C) No zoos exploit wild animals or endanger the survival of species. (D) Nearly all of the animals in zoos today were born in captivity. (E) The main purpose of zoos has shifted from entertainment to education. 44. Legal theorist: It is unreasonable to incarcerate anyone for any other reason than that he or she is a serious threat to the property or lives of other people. The breaking of a law does not justify incarceration, for lawbreaking proceeds either from ignorance of the law or of the effects of one’s actions, or from the free choice of the lawbreaker.

Obviously mere ignorance cannot justify incarcerating a lawbreaker, and even free choice on the part of the lawbreaker fails to justify incarceration, for free choice proceeds from the desires of an agent, and the desires of an agent are products of genetics and environmental conditioning, neither of which is controlled by the agent The claim in the first sentence of the passage plays which one of the following roles in the argument (A) It is offered as a premise that helps to show that no actions are under the control of the agent (B) It is offered as background information necessary to understand the argument C) It is offered as the main conclusion that the argument is designed to establish (D) It is offered as evidence for the

stated claim that protection of life and property is more important than retribution for past illegal acts (E) It is offered as evidence for the stated claim that lawbreaking proceeds from either ignorance of the law, or ignorance of the effects of one’s actions, or free choice 45. Commissioner: Budget forecasters project a revenue shortfall of a billion dollars in the coming fiscal year. Since there is no feasible way to increase the available funds, our only choice is to decrease expenditures.

The plan before you outlines feasible cuts that would yield savings of a billion dollars over the coming fiscal year. We will be able to solve the problem we face, therefore, only if we adopt this plan. This reasoning in the commissioner’s argument is flawed because this argument (A) relies on information that is far from certain (B) confuses being an adequate solution with being a required solution (C) inappropriately relies on the opinions of experts (D) inappropriately employs language that is vague (E) takes for granted that there is no way to increase available funds 6. Twelve healthy volunteers with the Apo-A-IV-1 gene and twelve healthy volunteers who instead have the Apo-A-IV-2 gene each consumed a standard diet supplemented daily by a high-cholesterol food. A high level of cholesterol in the blood is associated with an increased risk of heart disease. After three weeks, the blood cholesterol levels of the subjects in the second group were unchanged, whereas the blood cholesterol levels of those with the Apo-A-IV-1 gene rose 20 percent. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? A) Approximately half the population carries a gene that lowers cholesterol levels. (B) Most of those at risk of heart disease may be able to reduce their risk by adopting a low-cholesterol diet. (C) The bodies of those who have the Apo-A-IV-2 gene excrete cholesterol when blood cholesterol reaches a certain level. (D) The presence of the Apo-A-IV-1 gene seems to indicate that a person has a lower risk of heart disease. (E) The presence of the Apo-A-IV-2 gene may inhibit the elevation of blood cholesterol. 47. High school students who feel that they are not succeeding in school often drop out before graduating and go to work.

Last year, however, the city’s high school dropout rate was significantly lower than the previous year’s rate. This is encouraging evidence that the program instituted two years ago to improve the morale of high school students has begun to take effect to reduce dropouts. Which one of the following, if true about the last year, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) There was a recession that caused a high level or unemployment in the city. (B) The morale of students who dropped out of high school had been low even before they reached high school. (C) As in the preceding year, more high school students remained in school than dropped out. D) High schools in the city established placement offices to assist their graduates in obtaining employment. (E) The antidropout program was primarily aimed at improving students’ morale in those high schools with the highest dropout rates.

48. The television show Henry was not widely watched until it was scheduled for Tuesday evenings immediately after That’s Life, the most popular show on television. During the year after the move, Henry was consistently one of the ten most-watched shows on television. Since Henry’s recent move to Wednesday evenings, however, it has been watched by far fewer people.

We must conclude that Henry was widely watched before the move to Wednesday evenings because it followed That’s Life and not because people especially liked it. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) Henry has been on the air for three years, but That’s Life has been on the air for only two years. (B) The show that replaced Henry on Tuesdays has persistently had a low number of viewers in the Tuesday time slot. (C) The show that now follows That’s Life on Tuesdays has double the number of viewers it had before being moved. D) After its recent move to Wednesday, Henry was aired at the same time as the second most popular show on television. (E) That’s Life was not widely watched during the first year it was aired. Questions 49-50 Joseph: My encyclopedia says that the mathematician Pierre de Fermat died in 1665 without leaving behind any written proof for a theorem that he claimed nonetheless to have proved. Probably this alleged theorem simply cannot be proved, since-as the article points out-no one else has been able to prove it. Therefore it is likely that Fermat was either lying or else mistaken when he made his claim.

Laura: Your encyclopedia is out of date. Recently someone has in fact proved Fermat’s theorem. And since the theorem is provable, your claim-that Fermat was lying or mistaken-clearly is wrong. 49. Joseph’s statement that “this alleged theorem simply cannot be proved” plays which one of the following roles in his argument? (A) an assumption for which no support is offered (B) a subsidiary conclusion on which his argument’s main conclusion is based (C) a potential objection that his argument anticipates and attempts to answer before it is raised (D) the principle claim that his argument is structured to refute E) background information that neither supports nor undermines his argument’s conclusion 50. Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning error in Laura’s argument? (A) It purports to establish its conclusion by making a claim that, if true, would actually contradict that conclusion. (B) It mistakenly assumes that the quality of a person’s character can legitimately be taken to guarantee the accuracy of the claims that person has made. (C) It mistakes something that is necessary for its conclusion to follow for something that ensures that the conclusion follows. (D) It uses the term “provable” without defining it. E) It fails to distinguish between a true claim that has mistakenly between believed to be false and a false claim that has mistakenly been believed to be true. 51. People who have political power tend to see new technologies as a means of extending or protecting their power, whereas they generally see new ethical arguments and ideas as a threat to it. Therefore, technical ingenuity usually brings benefits to those who have this ingenuity, whereas ethical inventiveness brings only pain to those who have this inventiveness. Which one of the following statements, if true, most strengthens the argument? A) Those who offer new ways of justifying current political power often reap the benefits of their own innovations. (B) Politically powerful people tend to reward those who they believe are useful to them and to punish those who they believe are a threat. (C) Ethical inventiveness and technical ingenuity are never possessed by the same individuals (D) New technologies are often used by people who strive to defeat those who currently have political power. (E) Many people who possess ethical inventiveness conceal their novel ethical arguments for fear of retribution by the politically powerful. 2. Birds need so much food energy to maintain their body temperatures that some of them spend most of their time eating. But a comparison of a bird of a seed-eating species to a bird of a nectar-eating species that has the same overall energy requirement would surely show that the seed-eating bird spends more time eating than does the nectar-eating bird, since a given amount of nectar provides more energy than does the same amount of seeds The argument relies on which one of the following questionable assumptions A) Birds of different species do not generally have the same overall energy requirements as each other (B) The nectar-eating bird does not sometimes also eat seeds (C) The time it takes for the nectar-eating bird to eat

a given amount of nectar is not longer than the time it takes the seed-eating bird to eat the same amount of seeds (D) The seed-eating bird does not have a lower body temperature than that of the nectar-eating bird (E) The overall energy requirements of a given bird do not depend on factors such as the size of the bird, its nest-building habits; and the climate of the region in which it lives 3. When investigators discovered that the director of a local charity had repeatedly overstated the number of people his charity had helped, the director accepted responsibility for the deception. However, the investigators claims that journalists were as much to blame as the director was for inflating the charity’s reputation, since they had naively accepted what the director told them, and simply reported as fact the numbers he gave them. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the investigators’ claim A) Anyone who works for a charitable organization is obliged to be completely honest about the activities of that organization. (B) Anyone who knowingly aids a liar by trying to conceal the truth from others is also a liar. (C) Anyone who presents as factual a story that turns out to be untrue without first attempting to verify that story is no less responsible for the consequences of that story than anyone else is. (D) Anyone who lies in order to advance his or her own career is more deserving of blame than someone who lies in order to promote a good cause. E) Anyone who accepts responsibility for a wrongful act that he or she committed is less deserving of blame than someone who tries to conceal his or her own wrongdoing. 54. Telephone companies are promoting “voice mail” as an alternative to the answering machine. By recording messages from callers when a subscriber does not have access to his or her telephone, voice mail provides a service similar to that of an answering machine. The companies promoting this service argue that it will soon make answering machines obsolete, since it is much more convenient, more flexible, and less expensive than an answering machine. hich one of the following, if true, most calls into question the argument made by the companies promoting voice mail? (A) Unlike calls made to owners of answering machines, all telephone calls made to voice-mail subscribers are completed, even if the line called is in use at the time of the call. (B) The surge in sales of answering machines occurred shortly after they were first introduced to the electronics market. (C) Once a telephone customer decides to subscribe to voice mail, that customer can cancel the service at any time. D) Answering machines enable the customer to hear who is calling before the customer decides whether to answer the telephone, a service voice mail does not provide. (E) The number of messages a telephone answering machine can record is limited by the length of the magnetic tape on which calls are recorded Test 4 Questions 55-56 The simple facts are these: the number of people killed

each year by bears is about the same as the number of people killed by lightning of golf courses. And the number of people killed by lightning on golf courses each year is about the same as the number of people electrocuted by electric blenders.

All the horrible myths and gruesome stories aside, therefore a grizzly bear is in fact about as dangerous as an electric blender or a game of golf. 55. Which one of the following is an assumption that the author relies upon in the passage? (A) Most incidents involving grizzly bears are fatal. (B) Grizzly bears are no longer the danger they once were. (C) The number of fatalities per year is an adequate indication of something’s dangerousness. (D) A golf course is a particularly dangerous place to be in a thunderstorm. (E) Something is dangerous only if it results in death in the majority of cases. 6. Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively undermine the author’s argument? (A) Although the number of people killed by lightning on golf courses each year is very small, the total number of lightning fatalities is many times greater. (B) Electric blenders are among the safest housed hold appliances; were the author to compare fatalities from electrical appliances in general, she would get a much higher figure. (C) Most people would rather take their chances with benders and golf games than with grizzly bears. D) Bears in general-including black, brown, and cinnamon bears, as well as grizzly bears-kill many more people than do electric blenders. (E) Statistics show that the number of times people use electric blenders each year exceeds the number of times people play golf each year, which in turn far exceeds the number of contacts people have with grizzly bears each year. 57. Free public education is the best form of education there is. Therefore, we must fight to ensure its continued existence; that is, we must be ready to defend the principle of equality of educational opportunity.

Because this principle is well worth defending, it is clear that free public education is better than any other form of education. Which one of the following illustrates the same weak reasoning as found in the passage? (A) I love music, and that’s why I listen to it constantly. I have my stereo or radio on every waking minute. Since I lay music all the time, I must really love it. (B) Books are my most valuable possessions. My books are like my friends-each pleases me in different ways. Just as I would give up everything to save my friends, so too with my books. (C) I would much rather be poor and respected than be rich and despises.

To have the respect of others is far more valuable than to have millions of dollars. (D) I have never been betrayed by any of my friends. They have been true to me through good times and bad. Therefore I will never betray any of my friends. (E) Because every plant I have ever seen has green leaves, I have concluded that all plants must have

green leaves. This looks like a plant but it does not have green leaves, so it cannot be a plant. 58. Some people say that the scarcity of food is a function of the finite limits of the earth’s resources, coupled with a relentless rate of population growth.

This analysis fails to recognize, however, that much of the world’s agricultural resources are used to feed livestock instead of people. In the United States, for example, almost one-half of the agricultural acreage is devoted to crops fed to livestock. A steer reduces twenty-one pounds of inexpensive